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INT 500 Climate, Culture and the Biosphere
Peopling of South America – Fall 2007

Note: All Lecture Notes Are PDF files, and you must have Adobe Acrobat Reader or a similar program to view them. The files made available here are for the use of class participants only and will be removed after the last class meeting.

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Instructors:

Prof. George L. Jacobson, Jr.
320 Bryand Global Sciences
581-2991
jacobson at maine.edu Prof. Daniel H. Sandweiss
120 Alumni Hall
581-1889
dan.sandweiss at umit.maine.edu

 

 

Class schedule: 5 -7:30 pm Mondays, 307 Bryand Global Sciences

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September 24 Discussion Leaders: Dan Belknap, Sam Kelley, Ben Gross

Topic: Sea-level and coastal changes, Late Pleistocene-Holocene of South America

Please read and prepare to discuss the readings listed

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Questions:

1. The Fairbanks (1989) curve is generally considered to be the standard "eustatic" or global seawater volume-change curve. What other factors control local relative sea level?
2. What are the differences between Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere local relative sea-level changes, particularly in the mid-late Holocene?
3. The tectonically active Pacific coast of South America might be considered likely to experience uplift or more complex affects on the sea-level curve. What is the magnitude of these influences on the Peruvian coast over the last several hundred thousand years (Macharé and Ortlieb, 1992; Hsu et al. 1989 (abstract)?

click on image to view full size
4. What influence has sea-level change had on development of beach ridges in northern coastal Peru? Evaluate the initial paper by Richardson (1983), then compare and contrast the viewpoints of Wells (1996) and Sandweiss et al. (1998).
5. There is little direct sea-level information available for the shelf and slope off Peru, so the best we can do at present is to assume that the Fairbanks (1989) curve might apply. The attached figure plots the initial ages of occupation of Quebrada Jaguay versus the Fairbanks curve, implying a sea-level 50-70 m below present, and a shoreline several kilometers farther offshore than the present 2 km distance from the site. What in general would be the effects of the configuration of the exposed continental shelf on hypothetical occupations sites of humans utilizing marine resources during this initial 14-11 ka BP (calibrated) time period? What would be the effects of flooding and coastal transgression after that time?

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Monday, October 1

Topic: Paleoindians of Chile

Discussion Leader: César Mendez

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Topic: Ice extent and configuration, Late Pleistocene-Holocene of South America

Dicussion Leaders: Gordon Bromley, Bjorn Grigholm, Bob Kelley, Nicky Spaulding

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Discussion Questions

This week's papers address the extent of glacier ice, primarily in South America, roughly during the time of migration. Glaciers present barriers and hazards to human populations, as well as opportunities and much–needed resources. We will outline how the distribution of glaciers has changed over time in the Americas and also how such reconstructions are made. During the class, however, we should all aim to discuss the effects (known or hypothetical) of ice on settlement and how glaciers influenced the land–use behaviour of the first Americans. Instead of questions, here are some points to ponder whilst reading these papers:

1. How well are these reconstructions constrained, both chronologically and spatially?
2. What was the general pattern of glaciation and climate/environment during the time of migration?
3. Glacial environments can be surprisingly productive. What sorts of opportunities would Late Pleistocene/Holocene glaciation present for palaeoindian populations?
4. What sort of work (let’s get specific) can be conducted to further our knowledge of the use of glacial environments by palaeoindians?

These are some broad areas for thought. Come armed with questions, hypotheses, and suggestions.

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Monday, October 15

Topic: Paleobiology of South America: Climate and Plant Life

Discussion Leaders: Jasmine Saros, Luke Powell, Courtney Salm, Erin Wilcox

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Questions to ponder while reading:

1. Are local reconstructions enough to infer past climate in South America at the late glacial time scale? (Think about discrepancies in some areas with ocean cores/Antarctic cores, what could be done to better the understanding of climate during the late glacial in South America?)
2. Four Different kinds of forest vegetation are discussed in Moreno et al. 1999 (Valdivian Rain Forest , North Patagonian Rain Forest, Subantarctic Rain Forest, and Deciduous Subantarctic Forest). How would each group of vegetation potentially impact human movement in South America? For example, what resources are available in each forest (food, shelter, etc.)? Would people be able to move easily through these areas?
3. Although there is still debate about details of climate change in South America at the end of the last ice age, we can agree that the environment changed between 15,000 and 10,000 rcbp. How would fire (or other disturbance regimes) have affected early humans living in this region? (think of travel, food resources – plants and animals, shelter, etc.) (Also, what impacts could humans have had on the environments)
4. Vegetation varies with the ecosystems throughout South America, what ecosystems might be the most beneficial for a migrating people, and could this shed light on a route (highlands versus lowlands versus coastal) for habitation in South America?

Monday, October 22

Topic: Paleobiology of South America: Climate and Plant Life

Discussion Leaders: Jasmine Saros, Luke Powell, Courtney Salm, Erin Wilcox

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Papers for 10/22:  Please note that some papers you will only need to skim or read the abstract. 

Transition: Flora to Fauna

1. J.M.V. Fragoso and J.M. Huffman. (440K) Seed-dispersal and seedling recruitment patterns by the last neotropical megafaunal element in Amazonia, the tapir.  Journal of Tropical Ecology 16:369-385 [please skim]

Megafauna

1. Bryan, A.L., R.M. Casamiquela, J.M. Cruxent, R.Gruhn, and C. Ochsenius. 1978. (585K) An El Jobo mastodon kill at Taima-taima, Venezuela.  Science 200:1275-1277
2. Steadman, D.W., P.S. Martin, R.D.E. MacPhee, A. J. T. Jull, H.G. McDonald, C.A. Woods, M. Iturralde-Vinent, and G.W.L. Hodgins.  2005.  (255K) Asynchronous extinction of late Quaternary sloths on continents and islands.  PNAS 102: 11763–11768

Megafauna extinctions

1. Martin, P.S.  1973. (545K) The discovery of America.  Science 179:969-974
2. Owen-Smith, N. 1987.  (310K)Pleistocene extinctions: the pivotal role of megaherbivores.  Paleobiology 13:351-362 [read abstract only – good overview of global extinctions in the Late Pleistocene]
3. Zimov, S.A., V.I. Chuprynin, A.P. Oreshko, F.S. Chapin III, J.F. Reynolds, and M.C. Chapin. 1995.  (1M) Steppe-tundra transition: a herbivore-driven biome shift at the end of the Pleistocene.  The American Naturalist 146:765-794 [read abstract only]
4. Ficarelli, G., M. Coltorti, M. Moreno-Espinosa, P.L. Pieruccini, L. Rook, D. Torre. 2003.  (455K)A model for the Holocene extinction of the mammal megafauna in Ecuador.  Journal of South American Earth Sciences 15:835–845

Conclusion

1. Roosevelt, A.C., M. Lima da Costa, C. Lopes Machado, M. Michab, N. Mercier, H. Valladas, J. Feathers, W. Barnett, M. Imazio da Silveira, A. Henderson, J. Silva, B. Chernoff, D. S. Reese, J.A. Holman, N. Toth, K. Schick.  1996.  Paleoindian cave dwellers in the Amazon: the peopling of the Americas.  Science 272:373-384

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Questions:

1. Think about floral-faunal interaction from an ecological perspective – for example, how would vegetation and animals interact?  How could these dynamics potentially alter an ecosystem, especially in terms of the Late Pleistocene extinctions of megafauna? (grazing, seed dispersal, habitat alterations, etc.)
2. How would mammal populations have responded to changes on the landscape?  What resources would different types of animals need to survive?
3. What are the two major opposing viewpoints on the cause of these Late Pleistocene extinctions?  Which do you think is the most plausible? Can you think of any alternative scenarios that would cause extinctions of mammals at this time?
4. Think about the cost-benefits for early people in South America. What resources or habitats would be the most beneficial for people on the move? Consider hunting strategies (hunting many small mammals, or a few large ones).  How would the movement and/or lifestyle of a hunter-gatherer culture be affected?
5. Big-picture question:  Considering the rapidly changing climate, vegetation, and animal populations in South America during the late Pleistocene/early Holocene, how would these dynamic factors have affected human migration?  Do you think one factor would be more important than the others? How would the ecology of an area (i.e. species diversity, vegetation zones, competition, environmental conditions) affect migration throughout South America?

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Thursday, October 25

Topic: Discussion with special Guest: David Meltzer

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Monday, November 5

Topic: Genetic perspective on peopling of South America

Discussion Leaders: Greg Zaro, Tiffany Warzecha
Special Guest: Cecil Lewis

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Discussion Questions:

1. What is the role of human genetics in understanding the spread of modern Homo sapiens into South America (Refer to Table 1 in the Wang et al. paper and the proposed spread of anatomically modern humans depicted at http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/journey/
2. How do bottlenecks (i.e. Siberia and Panama-Isthmus) catalyze a decrease in genetic diversity amongst PaleoIndian populations?
3. What are the implications for migration routes to South America as supported by contemporary human genetic variation?
4. How might the environment and patterns of colonization/migration lead to differences in western vs. eastern South American genetic and linguistic variation?

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Readings:

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Monday, November 12

Topic: Late Pleistocene-Holocene South American technology

Discussion Leaders: Brian Robinson, Louis Fortin, Chris Sockalexis

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Technology is a fundamental part of understanding the peopling of the Americas.  There is a great deal known about some of the early cultures, but the “peopling” begs for the earliest evidence, challenging archaeological method and theory.  We include ten articles of which four are mostly for skimming photographs (#1, 7, 9 and 10) and one is a set of reviews that is optional (4).

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Things to think about.

1. When evidence is abundant we want to identify degrees of relationship.  How do we relate similarities in stone (and other material signatures) to cultural and biological relationships?
2. Clovis (or the fluted point tradition) is not only the symbol of the earliest well-known cultural pattern, it is enormously widespread and the artifact types are among the most distinctive (some would say god-awful obvious) in the hemisphere.  What are the ramifications in having really obvious cultural proxies?
3. Context and technology cannot be separated in the quest for understanding.  What are the pros and cons of the following contexts?
1. Deeply buried, well-isolated archaeological levels with no overlying cultural material, such as at Quebrada Santa Julia (Jackson et al. 2007 previously discussed by César Méndez).
2. Deeply stratified cultural remains grading into sterile deposits.
3. Stratified cultural deposits with obvious cultural items, grading into “less obvious” human products.
4. What are the ramifications of the suggestion that humans used indistinctive technologies for 20,000 years in some of the more extreme ages proposed?  This question involves the recognition of fiber, bone and stone artifacts as having been produced by humans.

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Readings

1. North American Technology:  Early Beringian assemblages are good candidates for Clovis progenitors (among others).  The article by Powers and Hoffecker (1) is not the most recent summary but it is one of the most important sites including both the so-called Nenana and Denali complexes.  Skim the article as a whole but pay close attention to technological differences of the two complexes pages 272 -285.
2. The “Standard” Paleoindian Lithic Technologies: Morrow and Morrow (2) investigate the continent-wide distribution of fluting.
3. Technological Diversity:  What does it mean when very different technologies and subsistence patterns coexisted with Clovis.  This, of course, depends on the how solid one’s model of Clovis is.  Anna Roosevelt (3) presents a case from caves in Brazil.  We include responses by Fiedel, Dillehay, and Meggars, and a rebuttal by Roosevelt (4) for your optional reading interest.  Borrero and Viviana (5) discuss evidence for the peopling of Patagonia.
4. Were they made by humans:  This is a harder question than one may think.

   Stone Technology: A classic example is the Calico Hills site in California which was blessed by Louis Leaky.  Vance Haynes (6) writes his usual critical report.  There is an impressive amount of literature attempting to prove whether or not thousands of artifacts picked from millions of cobbles are real.  A selection of the finest and most common tools are included from Monte Verde site (7).  This section includes 10 pages of text and figures scanned from the big book.

   Bone Technology:  We do not have space for the numerous flaked and cut bone sites but they are of considerable interest because bone can be directly dated.  We provide another negative review based on taphonomic cautionary tales by Gary Haynes (8).

   Fiber and Wood:  When preservation is extremely good we find organic artifacts that are often unique because they are so rare.  They are just as good for identifying human technology but the standards of identification can be difficult.  We include two articles mostly for you to look at the pictures.  The first by Adovasio and Lynch (9) shows cordage artifacts from Guitarrero Cave.  Don’t read the article but look closely at the too-dark photographs.  Remember that these cordage artifacts are nearly as old as Monte Verde.  Finally a long section from Monte Verde (10) is included with many photographs of wood and cordage artifacts.  Compare the cordage section of Chapter 9 in the Monte Verde report with that from Guitarrero Cave. The reading is optional but fascinating.

Monday, November 26

Topic: Monte Verde archaeological site in southern Chile.

Discussion Leaders: George Jacobson, Juan García, Alice Kelley

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Readings

Monte Verde is a controversial site, to say the least.  The goal of the discussion is to present the information and the debate, so that you can make your own evaluation of the data used to support the site’s antiquity.
The readings that form the basis for our discussion include:

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